Adaptation of Soil Judging for Cameroon

C.A. Che1, E.A. Mikhailova1*, C.J. Post1, M.A. Schlautman2, T.O. Owino2 and J.M. Galbraith3

1Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Clemson University, 261 Lehotsky Hall, Clemson, SC 29634, USA. Tel. 864-656-3467, Fax: 864-656-3304;

2Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, 342 Computer Court, Anderson SC, 29625-6510, USA Tel. 864-656-3276, Fax: 864-656-0672

3Department of Crop and Soil Environmental Sciences, Virginia Tech, 239 Smyth Hall, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA Tel. 540-656-1041, Fax: 864-231-9784

Corresponding author. Current address: Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Clemson University, 261 Lehotsky Hall, Clemson, SC 29634, USA. Tel. 864-656-3467, Fax: 864-656-3304.

Email address: eleanam@clemson.edu (E.A. Mikhailova).

ABSTRACT

Adaptation of Soil Judging to Cameroon can significantly enhance soil science education in the country. This may not only impact schools but also several government sectors such as public health, agriculture, housing and town planning and the transportation sector. A study was conducted on how to adapt conventional soil judging as practiced in the United States for Cameroon by a graduate student from that country using an undergraduate-level Soil Judging course taught at Clemson University together with a regional, multi-state soil judging competition. Over the course of the study, the student from Cameroon received training on 4 of the 8 soil orders that are present in Cameroon and also encountered in the Southeastern United States. A Southeastern Region Soil Judging Handbook was used as a guide for the development of teaching materials for Cameroon. Soil judging teaching materials prepared for Cameroon included tables of soil physical and chemical properties, topographic maps, and scorecards. Newly developed teaching materials can significantly enhance soil science education in Cameroon which may be part of an important long term solution to mitigate ineffective land use management.

Keywords: Africa, agriculture, education, environment, field, sustainability.

INTRODUCTION

Mcloughlin (1999) wrote that a student’s understanding of a subject is aided when teaching is student centered and they take an active part in the course planning. Quesada-Pineda et al. (2011) concurred that students are more likely to buy into such an approach. Since 1956, soil judging among college and university students in the Southeastern United States has provided great opportunities to build field experience and critical thinking skills (Aide, 1989; Karthanasis et al. 2011). Soil judging in the United States has evolved into numerous local contests and six regional contests, with the finalists from each region competing at the national soil judging competition in a designated host state (Hill et al. 1984). Hill et al. (1984) stated that soil judging adds a valuable “hands on” experience for hundreds of students who take courses in soil science and other soils-related disciplines. Hill et al. (1984) stated that soil judging remains a very effective method of teaching soil classification to thousands of students.

In the United States, soil judging has reached typically students majoring in the soil sciences, geology, geography, natural sciences, agronomy, forestry, horticulture, education, economics, animal sciences and environmental studies (Cooper, 1991). Soil judging competitions offer students the opportunity to apply soil science as a solution to growing challenges in soil use and management. Soil profile properties and interpretations to determine soil infiltration rate, hydraulic conductivity, available water, soil wetness class, slope, and site position are some critical indicators to land suitability for the cultivation of specific crops. Soil use interpretation may enable students to determine soil use suitability for construction of dwellings with basements, septic tank absorption fields, and local roads and streets (Karathanasis et al. 2011). It is possible to improve land use and management in the tropics through the introduction of soil judging competitions in the soil science curriculum.

Cameroon presents a unique opportunity to enrich soil science education graduates and other land use professionals through adaptation of soil judging competition in schools, colleges and universities. Like most countries in the tropics, soil degradation in Cameroon due to harsh environments, fragile soils, ignorance, inappropriate land use, and inadequate and often nutrient poor farm land, compounded by increasing human population pressure on limited land remains a major concern (Kjaergaard, et al. 2004; Bationo et al. 2006). Soil judging competitions can potentially offer a long term solution to some of the land use problems in Cameroon by educating students and planners about important soil properties related to land use such as soil infiltration rate, hydraulic conductivity, available water, soil wetness class, suitability for dwellings with basements, septic tank absorption fields, slope, erosion potential, and position of site.

Soil infiltration determines how much water from rainfall, irrigation, or a contaminant spill enters the soil and how much becomes runoff or overhead flow (Reynolds and Elrick, 1991). Mbuh et al. (2012) indicated that morphoclimatic information of the Mount Cameroon coastal landscape shows that it is being degraded continually. The high infiltration rates, abundant rainfall, oceanographic factors and the dynamics of the water masses, are some important factor responsible for influencing the transgression and progression of the coastline (Mbuh et al. 2012). According to Ayonghe et al. (2004) rainfall was a contributing factor to triggering the June 27th 2001 fatal landslides in Limbe Cameroon. It was hypothesized that due to prolonged rainfall the pore pressure above the normal water table was altered, making a landslide more likely (Ayonghe et al. 2004). High annual rainfall characterizes the South West Region of Cameroon which encompasses landslide prone areas in Limbe. Unpublished data from CDC-Cameroon Development Corporation meteorological center indicate yearly precipitation varying from 1500 to 6000 mm within the last 34 years (Che et al. 2012).

Hydraulic conductivity is the ability of the soil to transmit water (Reynolds and Elrick, 1991). Hydraulic conductivity is used to determine septic suitability. Ruoyan et al. (2010), reports that health care/waste management has been known to be a significant public health and environmental problem particularly in Cameroon. In Cameroon, over 60% of the population lack access to safe drinking water and have turned to springs wells and rivers for their daily water consumption needs (Ateba et al., 2012). Ako et al. (2009) and Djuikom et al. (2009) added that rapid population growth and unplanned urbanization and their consequences have led to surface and ground water degradation in major cities of Cameroon in the last 20 years. In Yaoundé and other major cities in Cameroon, streams and rivers are often used for disposal of solid and liquid waste. The seepage of feces from poorly constructed pit latrines only makes the situation worse, making these water ways heavy with bacteriological and other pollutants (Ateba et al. 2012). Previous studies carried out in Yaoundé highlighted the issue of fecal contamination of waterways frequently used by inhabitants of the city (Kemka, 2000; Djuikom et al., 2009; Kuitcha et al. 2010). Ground water is a primary source of water for domestic use, agricultural and industrial uses in Cameroon, it is therefore not surprising that its contamination has been recognized as one of the most serious problems in Cameroon (Ako et al, 2011).

Available water capacity is the water held in a soil between its field capacity and its permanent wilting point. It is the maximum amount of plant-available water that a soil can provide (Parr and Bertrand, 1960). The north of Cameroon is located in the Sahel region and experienced droughts in 2009 and 2011 and floods in 2010 (FAO/WFP, 2012). Each of these years has resulted in a high degree of crop failure, leaving the population with limited or nonexistent stocks for the lean season and increasing the gap between food production and food needs. An estimated 5.5 million people are living in the Far North region of Cameroon and the majority are farmers or agro-pastoralists or both (FAO/WFP, 2012). This region of Cameroon is characterized by limited rainfall, poor soils and food insecurity. A joined government/FAO/WFP food security survey conducted in 2010, in the North of Cameroon’s drought and flood prone Logone Basin suggested that food accounted for more than 40 % of household income. This study also indicated that about 124000 of the 216000 people in the Logone and Chari Basins needed immediate food assistance (FAO/WFP, 2012).

Soil wetness class is a reflection of the rate at which water is removed from the soil by both runoff and percolation to a specified depth (Karathanasis et al. 2011). Significant factors that influence soil wetness class include slope gradient, landscape position, infiltration rate, surface runoff, and permeability. Barret (2004) states that ground water quality may be affected by overlying land use. Typhoid fever and diarrhea represent respectively 32 and 43% of waterborne disease that affect the population of Cameroon (Kramkimel et al. 2004). Sanitation in cities of Cameroon, like in majority of other African cities is generally unsewered (Kuitcha et al., 2008). In the southern sector of Cameroon and adjacent city of N’Djamena in the Lake Chad basin, the depth of wells varies from less than 2 m to about 15 m, and the depth of bore holes from 20 to 60 m (Ngatcha and Daira, 2010). Ngatcha and Daira, (2010) stated that ground water can be found in Cameroon and Chad varying from 1.0 m to 40 m below soil level, thus making ground and surface water contamination a significant risk factor.

Suitability for dwellings with basements is a rating that can be slight, moderate or severely limiting (Karathanasis et al., 2011). Such suitability is based on soil properties that affect the soil wetness class, capacity of the soil to support a load without movement, and on the properties that affect excavation and construction cost (Karathanasis et al. 2011). Examples of the soil properties affecting suitability for dwellings with basements include flooding or ponding frequency, slope, depth to seasonally high water table, depth to soft rock, and depth to hard rock.

In Cameroon, permitting for construction is provided by the local councils and other related government ministries such as the ministry of town planning and housing. The majority of dwellings for family housing are constructed without basements. However, stricter regulations are required on permits for buildings in industrial districts, for example, hotels, classic restaurants and government office buildings, some of which have basements. Soil judging will teach important techniques to students in Cameroon on how to determine properties that affect the ease and amount of excavation which includes: the depth of water table, consistence (rupture resistance) of the soil, ponding, flooding, slope, depth to bedrock, hardness of bedrock and the amount and size of rock fragments. Soils that have a shallow soil wetness class are more likely hosts to vectors that require standing water during part of their life cycle, and must be identified to the public. Regardless of the stipulated permit and construction standards that companies or individuals seeking to construct buildings must adhere to in Cameroon, monitoring for compliance is hardly ever enforced.

Slope is an important factor influencing runoff, erosion, and landslides. Landslides are historically some of the worst known natural disasters Landslides are common natural hazards along the Cameroon Volcanic Line, and are most frequent during heavy rainstorm evens between June and October (Lambi, 1991). Between 1988 and 2001, 64 human fatalities have been recorded as a result of landslides along the Cameroon Volcanic Line, and many more landslides events without fatalities are known to have occurred which have not been recorded (Ayonghe et al. 2004). Lambi (1991) reported that these fatal landslides events frequently occurred on steep slopes of cones formed from loose pyroclastic ejecta from different episodes of volcanic eruptions of mount Cameroon. Findings from Thierry et al. (2008), on a multi-hazard risk mapping assessment study on an active volcano in the Mount Cameroon area, indicated that 3.6 % and 3.2 % of 50,000 buildings are in very high and high hazard risk areas, respectively. These areas are threatened by landslides. As a component of soil judging students are taught how to measure the slope of a site, and to determine how it influences infiltration rate, surface runoff and soil erosion potential (Karthanasis et al. 2011). Such knowledge would be relevant to addressing the challenges caused by land degradation and landslides in Cameroon and risk mitigation.

Soil water erosion involves detachment and transport of particles by raindrops and surface runoffs, followed by deposition. The principal mechanisms of detachment include the disintegration of aggregates by slacking, cracking, dispersion and shearing by raindrop impact or runoff (Barthes et al. 2000). An FAO (1993) report indicated that soil erosion effects in Cameroon ranged from decline of plant nutrients and organic matter, increased compaction, increased runoff, and also silting into reservoirs, irrigation canals, rivers and streams. Close to 4 million of the 15 million inhabitant of Cameroon live within 60 km of its coastline (Asangwe, 2002). This means more than 25% of the population is settled on approximately 6.5% area of the coast land (Asangwe, 2002). Human pressures on such sensitive zones which involves seasonal reworking and reshuffling of its sandy beaches have led to increased erosion and other environmental problems (Mbuh et al. 2012). Surface runoff and soil erosion potential determination are important skills that students acquire during soil judging competitions, which may be relevant when addressing environmental issue related to erosion in Cameroon.

The position of site describes the landform on which the soil pit is located. A topographic map may be an additional resource to help determine the position of a pit on a landscape during soil judging competitions (Karthanasis et al. 2011). In the North of Cameroon, the Yaere flood plain is prone to yearly flooding caused by rainfall and Logone River overflow (Benech, 1988; Delclaux et al. 2010). According to Benech (1988), Yaere plains are flooded when discharge exceeded 1,200 m3/s at Bongor, a site located on the Logone River. Knowledge gained on slope and site position on a landscape from soil judging competition may be important during flood and landslide risk assessment and mitigation.

Cameroon, like most developing countries, is facing huge challenges with high rates of urbanization, estimated at about 4% annually, compared to an annual population growth rate of about 2.7% (Ahmed and Ali, 2004; World Bank, 2002). Overcrowding in cities already experiencing socio-economic pressures often characterized by inadequate housing poor sanitation and waste management have led to the decline in health (Frumkin, 2010). Soil interpretation skills acquired in soil judging training would be relevant to the ministry of town planning and housing who regulate housing in Cameroon. While the introduction of soil judging completion in schools, colleges and universities in Cameroon may not have an immediate impact on land use practices, it does offer hope through the students and university graduates for future generations.

The objectives of this study are to adapt Soil Judging to Cameroon and to provide students with an opportunity to practice soil science knowledge in a meaningful context.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study area: Cameroon is found between West and Central Africa at the far northeast end of the Gulf of Guinea but is also considered to be in the central African sub-region. It lies between latitude 2o and 13 o N, extending from the Gulf of Guinea to Lake Chad over a distance of 1200 km and between longitude 8 o and 16 o E and extends over a distance of 800 km at the widest portion (Ako et al., 2010). It has a total surface area of about 475,650 km2 with a mainland surface area of 466,050 km2 and a maritime surface area of 9,600 km2 (Ako et al., 2010). The urban and rural populations are about the same size, although urbanization is increasing by 4.7% per year on average, about 35% of the urban population lives in the economic capital Douala, or the administrative capital, Yaoundé (Ako et al., 2010).

In order to judge (describe and interpret) any soil and site properties, pre-field preparations will be mandatory and this must also take into account access to and affordability of tools (Fig. 1). Score cards used for grading in soil judging competitions must be designed based on the knowledge of expert groups in a particular region (Fig. 2, 3). Also topographic maps of the soil pit sites could be produced from the internet while specific chemical data for each site could be obtained from the analysis of soil samples from any equipped soil nutrient analysis laboratory (Fig. 4, 5, 6). Of the 12 soil orders known according to US soil taxonomic classification, eight have been described in Cameroon (Alfisols, Andisols, Entisols, Histosols, Inceptisols, Oxisols, Ultisols and Vertisols). Training for a 2012 soil judging competition in Lexington Kentucky enabled a graduate student from Cameroon to become familiar with four of the 8 soil orders in Cameroon that are also present in the Southeastern United States (Alfisols, Entisols, Inceptisols, and Ultisols).

Equipment needed for Soil Judging and costs and availability in Cameroon:

A set of tools that must be provided for each student involved in a soil judging completion includes: A blank description sheet (score card), acceptable guidelines, clinometer or slope degree measuring tool, knife or excavation tool, bucket, clip-board, soil collection trays, water bottle, measuring tape, two calibrated wooden poles, a calculator, a pencil, a Mussel color chart, a hammer, nails and a portable seat if desired (Fig. 1; Table 2). All items needed for an ideal soil judging kit can be purchased locally in Cameroon (Table 2).

Sampling: When students arrive on site for a soil judging competition, they are given instructions and then split into four groups with students mixed from all the participating schools to minimize the possibility of cheating. The students then take turns in a predetermined order, this time in smaller groups, to observe and describe the different soil profiles in different soil pit locations. For each soil pit, chemical data will be displayed for all students to see (Fig. 4). Usually this is attached on a pole out of the pit for all to see clearly. Also two calibrated poles will be planted at a suitable location apart from each other to get the slope readings of the pit location. Depending on how long competing students are permitted to be on site at each pit, students will be split into small groups to use the pit alternately so as to avoid overcrowding. Students will collect soil samples, describe the soil and site morphology and enter responses on their individual score cards. Fifty to sixty minutes may be allowed as the maximum time allowed for the completion of scorecards for each pit. However during an actual competition sufficient time is allocated for practice sessions to allow students to become familiar with soil orders of that particular region. This is normally done for the first three to four days of the competition week, in preparation for the actual competition on the last day. The number of sites to be judged by students during any competition will be determined by the officials and coaches long before the competition begins. While the competition is in progress, judges will begin marking the scores cards collected from students from pits that have been judged already. At the end of the day, student may wait to get the final results of the competition and appropriate awards.

Laboratory analysis: Soil samples to provide vital chemical data for the students could be analyzed in any one of the three soil nutrient analysis laboratories in Cameroon (Table 1): Dschang, Ekona and Yaounde.

Topographic maps: A shapefile of Cameroon administrative boundaries was overlaid on a DEM layer of Cameroon (ESRI, 2012). These layers were first converted to raster format using the polygon to raster tool. The projections of the DEM and country outline were changed from geographic coordinate system to projected coordinate system Clarke_1880_UTM_Zone 32N. This was done with the help of the project tool. Using the contour spatial analyst tool, contour lines were created from the DEM layer. Different contour intervals were used ranging from 50m to 1500m depending on the amount of detail and extent of coverage desired. The contour lines were then clipped to fall within the Cameroon boundary lines. A base map of the West Central Africa was then overlaid as background to situate Cameroon on the African continent (Fig. 5, 6).

Courses Background: Soil judging course and contest can be incorporated in various soil science courses currently taught in Cameroon (Ayonghe, 1999):

University of Yaoundé: Structure of Sub-soil (ST 202), Weathering and Pedology (ST 309), Classification and Evolution of Soils (ST 313), Structural Analyses and Pedogeneses in Tropical Areas (ST 436), and Structural Analyses and Pedogeneses in Tropical Zones (ST 528).

University of Douala: Weathering and Pedology (ST 313), Classification and Mapping of Soils (ST 314), and Morphology of Soils and Classification (ST 415).

University of Buea: The Geology of Cameroon and Pedology (Elective).

Sectors that stand to benefit directly in Cameroon include, the agricultural sector, housing and town planning, transportation, health and agricultural sectors.

Learning Management System: Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment (Moodle) is a free source e-learning software platform, which can be used for storing course materials, and assessing student’s learning via electronic quizzes and tests (https://moodle.org/). Computer laboratories and ready access to the internet are available in most universities in Cameroon.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

For Cameroon, soil judging can be relevant in many different sectors. This may include schools (middle and high schools, colleges and professional schools, and universities), the agricultural, health, transportation, housing and town planning sectors.

The soil judging competition model in colleges and universities in the United States has proven to be an effective approach to teaching and reinforcing soil morphology and classification to many students across several disciplines (Hill et al. 1984). For students and their coaches, the competition serves as a positive motivating factor for learning soil sciences (Hill et al., 1984).

All the equipment needed by students to prepare and participate in a soil judging competition can be purchased from local bookstores and other specialized electronic stores in some big cities in Cameroon such as Douala, Yaoundé, Baffousam, Kumba and Bamenda. Additionally, soil nutrient analysis laboratories are available in Dschang, Ekona and Yaoundé, in the West, South West and Center Regions for carrying out soil nutrient analysis to provide physical and chemical data which are vital for soil judging competitions. Similar to the United States, the most likely students to take interest in soil judging in Cameroon might be Earth Science- or natural resource-related majors (Geology, Agriculture, Forestry, Land-use planning). Geology has been taught as a subject in most high schools in Cameroon for several decades. This subject is usually accompanied by practical field hands on experiences. Students get familiar with the use of instruments such as the clinometer, measuring tape, hammer and the Mussels color chart. It is hoped that the introduction of soil judging competitions to Cameroon will equip future graduates with knowledge and skills to help their families, communities and nation at large to make informed decisions that can help prevent losses or additional spending to fix problems that could have easily been avoided. Determination of soil erosion potential, surface runoff potentials, hydraulic conductivity, infiltration rates, available water and soil wetness class could equip graduates with the skills to make good judgment on which soil condition is best for cultivation, the type of plants to cultivate and recommended farming techniques.

Many studies the world over, have shown a link between poor environmental conditions and disease (Ross, 2011). Lack of proper sanitation, unsafe disposal of storage waste in and around living quarters, may provide habitat for vectors of various diseases such as typhoid fever, diarrhea, and dysentery (Fitzpatrick and Lagory, 2000). According to Dominique-Torres and Foster (2011) only 35% of Cameroonians have access to improved sanitation. Cholera outbreaks in 2011 in Douala and other cities of Cameroon have been linked to contaminated water (Epule et al. 2011). The knowledge of soil interpretations such as suitability for septic tank absorption fields acquired during soil judging competitions could be helpful in determining the best sites for their construction. The knowledge of soil texture, parent material, position of site and infiltration rates are important parameters to determine site suitability for latrines, and septic tank construction.

Several other sectors in Cameroon can benefit from soil judging training skills. The increasing trend and severity of natural hazards such as flash floods in Bamenda (Nyambod, 2010), landslides along the Cameroon Volcanic Line and intense city flooding in the Northern regions of Cameroon (Ayonghe et al. 1999; Che et al. 2012) underscore the importance of site considerations and other risk factors when engaging in construction projects. Pettang et al. (1997) stated that most developing countries, like Cameroon, have a disorganized urban housing construction sector. Soil interpretation calculations which are a component of soil judging can offer information that is revealing of site suitability for building. The texture of the soil, soil wetness class, position of site in relation to risk of flooding, and infiltration rates are all diagnostic information that can help determine construction site suitability. Soil judging skills can also be taught to state employees in the ministry of housing and town planning in Cameroon to broaden their criteria in evaluating house construction plans submitted to the local town municipal officials. The Cameroon government’s local ministries of transport and agriculture staff could be given periodic soil judging refresher trainings courses to equip them be more effective at executing their services, too. This may be very beneficial training for the local agricultural extension workers who work directly with individual farmers and farming groups especially in the rural areas of Cameroon.

In order to successfully adapt and interpret soil judging to Cameroon, it is necessary to train qualified personnel. This article gives an actual example of how a graduate student from Cameroon was trained in soil judging by participating in a soil judging course (FNR 493) and Southeastern Regional Soil Judging Competition in Lexington KY in the fall of 2012. Celestine Akuma Che was trained on how to: collect soil samples, determine slope, interpret topographic maps, determine texture by feel, land use interpretation, chemical and physical properties, soil wetness class, infiltration rate, hydraulic conductivity, and available water ( Figures, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11).

Materials and skills needed for a successful implementation of soil judging in school, colleges and other professional institutions have been developed. The score cards have been designed with specific adaptations to the different possible soil orders, epipedons, subsurface horizons and characteristics that may be found in Cameroon (Figs 2 & 3). Other score cards specific to individual regional competitions will be adapted from the master score cards for Cameroon. Students and faculty shall be trained on how to judge soils using the score cards prior to organizing regional competitions. This may begin with pilot trials at a local scale, and then the module will be evaluated and adjustments made to suit local realities to Cameroon.

Chemical properties data shall be made available for every pit in the different regions both for soil judging practice sessions and for actual competitions (Fig. 4). The nutrient analysis laboratories present in Ekona (South West Region), Dschang (West Region) and Yaoundé (Center Regions) would be very vital to get these data for soil judging. Students and future coaches shall be trained on how to use these data to interpret and judge different soils in Cameroon. This would need cooperation from the Ministries of Agriculture, Education, and Scientific Research in Cameroon.

Sample topographic maps (Fig. 6) shall be produced for each location using GPS coordinates obtained from simple GPS units, or cellphones or digital Cameras with special enhanced capabilities. The topographic maps will be produced from computers with any version of ArcGIS, ArcView (ESRI, Redlands California, 1969) which are available in Cameroon. Students and coaches shall receive training on how to interpret a site position based on information on a topographic map. A site position could be a depression, drainage way, flood plain, foot slope, stream terrace or upland. This can be determined by looking carefully at patterns on the isoline elevation. For example, on Figure 6 there is a depression on the middle left of the map. This conclusion is correct because the isolines elevation decreases progressively from outside to inside.

Other resources that may be needed to effectively teach and share knowledge for this project includes a website with sample demonstrations on how to conduct soil judging, and lecture notes and power points needed to teach soil judging as a course. Moodle® may be used to help students access and download information. Graduate student from Cameroon received training on how to use these resources and also has a website with information and tools to help implement soil judging in Cameroon.

CONCLUSIONS

The introduction of soil judging to Cameroon may serve as a low cost nontraditional way of teaching students and government workers simple and efficient techniques of land management and use. Cameroon has the basic infrastructure for a successful introduce of soil judging competitions to schools (middle and high schools, colleges, and universities), and various government sectors such as agriculture, health, road construction and building and town planning sectors. Soil nutrient analysis data can be got from any of the three soil nutrient analysis laboratories in Cameroon (Table 1) thus facilitating soil morphological descriptions. Soil judging may serve as a way of reinforcing the application of earth science taught mainly as geology, in high schools, colleges and universities in Cameroon.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank and acknowledge the students from FNR 493: Soil Judging (Fall, 2012) course and organizers of the 2012 Southeast Regional Collegiate Soils Contest in Kentucky for helping to develop this project. Financial support for this project was provided by the Clemson University Diversity Scholarship.

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List of Figures

Figure 1. Soil Judging equipment.

Figure 2. Front side of scorecard for Cameroon Soil Contest (adapted from Karathanasis et al., 2011).

Figure 3. Back side of scorecard for Cameroon Soil Contest (adapted from Karathanasis et al., 2011).

Figure 4. Soil physical and chemical properties for one of the soil profiles in Fundong Subdivision, North West Region, Cameroon (FAO/UNDP, 1987) as it is used during Soil Judging practice and competition.

Figure 5. Locations of ten soil pits with determined soil physical and chemical properties (Yerima and Van Ranst, 2005).

Figure 6. Topographic map for Practice Pit 1.

Figure 7. Soil sample collection from Ultisols in Simpson Agricultural Station in Pendleton, SC.

Figure 8. Interpretation of soil chemical and physical properties during 2012 Southeastern Regional Soil Judging Competition in Lexington, KY.

Figure 9. Slope determination during 2012 Southeastern Regional Soil Judging Competition in Lexington, KY.

Figure 10. Texture by feel during 2012 Southeastern Regional Soil Judging Competition in Lexington, KY.

Figure 11. Clemson University Soil Judging team (Celestine Che, graduate student from Cameroon is far right) 2012 Southeastern Regional Soil Judging Competition in Lexington, KY.

Figure 1. Soil Judging equipment.

Figure 2. Front side of scorecard for Cameroon Soil Contest (adapted from Karathanasis et al., 2011).

Fig. 3. Back side of scorecard for Cameroon Soil Contest (adapted from Karathanasis et al., 2011 and Yerima and Van Ranst, 2005).

Practice Pit 1

Number of horizons: 5

Depth to be described: 200 cm

Nail in 3rd horizon @ 70 cm

Horizon	OC (%)	BS (%)
1	2.4	14
2	2.3	9
3	1.1	9
4	0.9	16
5	0.7	56

Flooding: NONE	Ponding: NONE

Figure 4. Soil physical and chemical properties for one of the soil profiles in Fundong Subdivision, North West Region, Cameroon (FAO/UNDP, 1987) as it is used during Soil Judging practice and competition.

Figure 5. Locations of ten soil pits with determined soil physical and chemical properties (Yerima and Van Ranst, 2005).

Figure 6. Topographic map for Practice Pit 1 located in Fundong Subdivision, North West Region, Cameroon (FAO/UNDP, 1987) (Yerima and Van Ranst, 2005, p. 186-187).

Figure 7. Soil sample collection from Ultisols in Simpson Agricultural Station in Pendleton, SC.

Figure 8. Interpretation of soil chemical and physical properties during 2012 Southeastern Regional Soil Judging Competition in Lexington, KY.

Figure 9. Slope determination during 2012 Southeastern Regional Soil Judging Competition in Lexington, KY.

Figure 10. Texture by feel during 2012 Southeastern Regional Soil Judging Competition in Lexington, KY.

Figure 11. Clemson University Soil Judging team (Celestine Che, graduate student from Cameroon is far right) 2012 Southeastern Regional Soil Judging Competition in Lexington, KY.

Table 1. General information about regions of Cameroon (Source: Institut National de la Statistique Cameroun, 2010).

Region	Capital	Population (2010)	Area (km2)	Population density (people/km2)	Higher education institutions (with soil/geology sciences)	Government or private soil analysis laboratories	Common soil-related uses
1. Adamawa	Ngaoundéré	1,015,600	63,701	16	1	N/A	Grazing, building construction
2. Centre	Yaoundé	3,525,700	68,953	51	7	1	Logging, timber, industry, subsistence farming, commerce
3. East	Bertoua	802,000	109,002	7	N/A	N/A	Logging, timber, mining, timber, building, fishing
4. Far North	Maroua	3,480,400	34,263	102	N/A	N/A	Tourism, building, subsistence farming
5. Littoral	Douala	2,865,800	20,248	142	3	N/A	Major industrial zone, commerce, building, fishing , subsistence farming
6. North	Garoua	2,050,200	66,090	31	1	N/A	Tourism, building, subsistence farming.
7. Northwest	Bamenda	1,804,700	17,300	104	5	N/A	Subsistence farming, small businesses and crafts, building, quarry
8. South	Ebolowa	692,100	47,191	15	N/A	N/A	Logging, timber, subsistence farming
9. Southwest	Buea	1,384,300	25,410	55	4	1	Plantation and subsistence farming, building
10. West	Bafoussam	1,785,300	13,892	126	2	1	Plantation and subsistence farming, industry, trade and commerce.

Note: N/A = not available.

Table 2. Soil judging equipment per person and cost in Cameroon.

No.	Equipment/supplies	Cost in US $	Cost in Franc CFA as of 12/13/12
1.	Abney level, clinometer, or other hand level	300	150,524.35
2.	Knife	5	2,508.69
3.	Water bottle	1	501.738
4.	Munsell Color Chart	150	75,260.69
5.	Scorecards and supplemental materials	1	501.738
6.	Calculator	4	2,006.97
7.	Mechanical pencil	0.50	250.872
8.	Measuring tape and nail	5	2,508.69
9.	Clip board	1	501.738
10.	Containers for soil samples	5	2,508.69
11.	Bucket	3	1,505.19
Total	475.5	238,581.09